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PFAS — Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances

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PFAS HOME
Navigating This Website
About ITRC
Fact Sheets
1 Introduction
2 Naming Conventions and Use
2 PFAS Chemistry and Naming Conventions, History and Use of PFAS, and Sources of PFAS Releases to the Environment overview
2.1 Environmental Significance
2.2 Chemistry, Terminology, and Acronyms
2.3 Emerging Health and Environmental Concerns
2.4 PFAS Reductions and Alternative PFAS Formulations
2.5 PFAS Uses
2.6 PFAS Releases to the Environment
3 Firefighting Foams
3 Firefighting Foams Overview
3.1 Foam Formulations
3.2 AFFF Characteristics
3.3 Mechanisms for Release to the Environment
3.4 AFFF Fate and Transport
3.5 Forensic Analysis of AFFF
3.6 AFFF Procurement and Inventory
3.7 Foam Systems and Operations
3.8 Emergency Firefighting Operations
3.9 Immediate Investigative and Cleanup Actions
3.10 AFFF Disposal
3.11 Firefighting Foam System Replacement
3.12 Federal, State and International Regulations and Guidance
3.13 Foam Research and Development
4 Physical and Chemical Properties
4 Physical and Chemical Properties Overview
4.1 Challenges and Limitations Related to PFAS Physical and Chemical Properties
4.2 Physical Properties
4.3 Chemical Properties
5 Fate and Transport
5 Environmental Fate and Transport Processes Overview
5.1 Fate and Transport Introduction
5.2 Phase Partitioning
5.3 Media-Specific Migration Processes
5.4 Transformations
5.5 PFAS Uptake into Aquatic Organisms
5.6 PFAS Uptake into Plants
6 Occurrence
6 Media-Specific Occurrence Overview
6.1 Air
6.2 Soil and Sediment
6.3 Groundwater
6.4 Surface Water
6.5 Biota
7 Health Effects
7 Human and Ecological Health Effects of select PFAS Overview
7.1 Human Health Effects
7.2 Ecological Toxicology
8 Basis of Regulations
8 Basis of Regulations Overview
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Regulatory Programs
8.3 Differences in the Available Regulations, Advisories, and Guidance Regulatory
9 Site Risk Assessment
9 Site Risk Assessment Overview
9.1 Human Health
9.2 Ecological Risk Assessment
9.3 Uncertainty
10 Site Characterization
10 Site Characterization Overview
10.1 Site Characterization Issues Relevant to PFAS
10.2 Initial Steps
10.3 Site Investigation
10.4 Data Analysis and Interpretation
10.5 Source Identification
11 Sampling and Analysis
11 Sampling and Analytical Methods Overview
11.1 Sampling
11.2 Analytical Methods/Techniques
11.3 Data Evaluation
11.4 Source Identification
12 Treatment Technologies
12 Treatment Technologies Overview
12.1 Overview
12.2 Field-Implemented Liquids Treatment Technologies
12.3 Field-Implemented Solids Treatment Technologies
12.4 Incineration
12.5 Limited Application and Developing Liquids Treatment Technologies
12.6 Limited Application and Developing Solids Treatment Technologies
12.7 Integrated Remedial Solutions
12.8 Sustainability of PFAS Treatment
12.9 Improving Evaluation of PFAS Treatment Technologies
13 Stakeholder Perspectives
13 Stakeholder Perspectives Overview
13.1 Stakeholder Concerns
13.2 Specific Tribal Stakeholder Concerns
13.3 Stakeholder Resources
14 Risk Communication
14 Risk Communication Overview
14.1 Role of Risk Perception: Public Stakeholders and Decision Makers
14.2 Risk Communication Challenges
14.3 Risk Communication Planning and Engagement Tools
15 Case Studies
15 Case Studies Overview
15.1 Site Characterization Case Studies
15.2 Treatment Case Studies
15.3 Risk Assessment Case Study
15.4 Risk Communication Case Studies
16 Surface Water Quality
16 Surface Water Quality
16.1    Introduction
16.2 Protection of Human Health
16.3 Protection of Biota
16.4 Sampling and Analysis
16.5 Surface Water Foam
Additional Information
References
17 Additional Information
17 Additional Information Overview
17.1 Additional Information for Media-Specific Occurrence
17.2 Additional Information for Human Health Effects
17.3 Additional Information for Risk Assessment
Acronyms
Glossary
Acknowledgments
Team Contacts
Document Feedback
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PFAS — Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances
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2.5 PFAS Uses

PFAS have been produced on a commercial scale since the 1950s, and production continues today. The unique physical and chemical properties of PFAS impart oil, water, stain, and soil repellency, chemical and temperature resistance, friction reduction, and surfactant properties to a wide range of products, some of which are considered essential to health, safety, or modern life (Glüge et al. 2020). Glüge et al. (2020) categorized PFAS by uses according to industry application and practical use and identified more than 200 uses for more than 1,400 individual PFAS.

Table 2-5 provides a general (not exhaustive) introduction to some of the uses of PFAS chemistries that are, or have been, marketed or used (3M Company 1999; Poulsen et al. 2005; OECD 2006; Washington State Department of Ecology 2012; OECD 2011; OECD 2013; Fujii, Harada, and Koizumi 2013; OECD 2015; Performance Fluoropolymer Partnership 2021; Henry et al. 2018). The specific applications for all PFAS are not well documented in the public realm. For example, of the 2,000 PFAS identified in a 2015 study, only about half had an associated listed use (KEMI 2015). Further discussion of select uses that may be associated with potentially significant environmental releases are provided in Section 2.6.

As discussed in Section 2.2.2.1, most polymer PFAS are considered to pose relatively less risk to human health and the environment than some nonpolymer PFAS. For this reason, Table 2-5 distinguishes between these two major classes of PFAS and where they are used in various industries and products. Glüge et al. (2020) provided a detailed listing of PFAS by use category/subcategory, function, and properties; however, it is not organized according to polymer versus nonpolymer PFAS used in these instances.

The major industries and applications summarized in the table are described in more detail in Section 2.6.1.

Table 2-5. Sample historic and current uses of PFAS

Industry/Application PFAS Type Documented Use and Examples of Some PFAS
Aviation and Aerospace Polymer Mechanical components made of fluoropolymers (such as PTFE and PFA tubing, piping, seals, gaskets, cables, and insulators)
Nonpolymers Hydraulic fluid additives made from PFSA salts (such as PFOS at about 0.1%) to prevent evaporation, fires, and corrosion
Automotive Polymer Mechanical components made of fluoropolymers, including wiring and cable, fuel delivery tubing, seals, bearings, gaskets and lubricants, and some polymer coatings on carpets
Nonpolymers Surface treatment for textiles, upholsteries, carpets, leather and exterior surfaces
Biocides (Herbicides and Pesticides) Polymer None reported
Nonpolymers Active ingredients such as short-chain sulfonamides in plant growth regulators and herbicides, and EtFOSA (sulfluramid) in ant and termite baits; inert enhancing ingredients in pesticides; PFPAs and PFPiAs as anti-foaming agents in solutions
Building and Construction Polymer Fluoropolymer membranes and coatings (such as PTFE, PVDF, and/or side-chain fluorinated polymers) in architectural materials (like fabrics, roofing membranes, metals, stone, tiles, concrete, radomes); adhesives, seals, caulks; additives in paints (for example, low- and no-VOC latex paints), varnishes, dyes, stains, sealants; surface treatment agent and laminates for conserving landmarks
Nonpolymers Additives in paints, coatings, and surface treatments (PASF- and fluorotelomer-based compounds, ammonium salt of PFHxA)
Cable and Wiring Polymer Coatings and jacketings made of fluoropolymers (such as PTFE and PVDF) for weathering, flame, and soil resistance, with cables used in many applications, including communication facilities, antennae, and computer networks
Nonpolymers None reported
Cosmetics/Personal Care Products Polymer Dental floss and micro powders used in creams and lotions.
Nonpolymers Cosmetics, shampoos, nail polish, eye makeup, denture cleaners
Electronics Polymer Fluoropolymers (such as PVDF and PTFE) used in insulators, solder sleeves, printed circuit boards, cell phones, computers, speakers, and transducers
Nonpolymers Flame retardants for polycarbonate resin (such as the potassium salt of PFBS)
Energy Polymer Fluoropolymer films (such as FEP, PVDF) to cover solar panel collectors, electrolyte fuel cells, PTFE expansion joint materials for power plants
Nonpolymers Fuel cell and battery electrolyte (such as the lithium salt of PFAAs)
Firefighting/Safety Polymer Fluoropolymers used in firefighting equipment and protective clothing (such as those woven with PTFE). Other polymer coatings using side-chain fluorinated polymers)
Nonpolymers Coatings and materials used as water repellents and some Class B foam (may contain PFCAs, PFSAs, and fluorotelomer-based derivatives), vapor suppression for flammable liquids (for example, gasoline storage)
Food Processing Polymer Fluoropolymer fabrication materials (such as PTFE) (liners for trays, ovens, grills)
Nonpolymers May be used as coatings on food packaging
Household Products Polymer Nonstick coatings (fluoropolymers such as PTFE); aftermarket treatment for textiles, upholsteries, carpets, and leather (such as FT-based side-chain fluorinated polymers)
Nonpolymers Aftermarket treatment for textiles, upholsteries, carpets, and leather (such as PASFs; floor polishes (such as the ammonium salt of PFDA), coatings, and floor finishes (PFPAs and PFPiAs) and cleaning agents and alkaline cleaners; automobile waxes; may include PFAAs, PASF- and fluorotelomer-based derivatives
Medical Products Polymer Fluoropolymers used in surgical patches, cardiovascular grafts, raw materials for human body implants (such as catheters, stents, needles, and other) given biocompatibility and extremely low coefficient of friction
Nonpolymers X-ray film, stain- and water-repellent protective medical fabrics (like surgical drapes and gowns) created from PASF- or fluorotelomer-based (meth)acrylate polymers and polyurethanes
Metal Plating Polymer None reported
Nonpolymers Wetting agent, mist suppression for harmful vapors, and surfactants (may include potassium, lithium, diethanolamine and ammonium salts of PFOS or 6:2 FTS)
Oil Production Polymer Lining of gas pipes
Nonpolymers Marketed for and potential instances of use in oil well production
Mining Polymer None reported
Nonpolymers Instances of surfactants used in ore mining flotation
Paper and Packaging Polymer Oil and grease and water repellent to paper, paperboard, molded pulp products (including food contact materials), and LDPE bags; examples include side-chain fluorinated polymers in which the PASF- or fluorotelomer-based alcohols or their acrylate or methacrylate esters are attached on side chains
Nonpolymers Phosphate ester salts (esterification of PASF or FT-based alcohols with phosphoric acid; PFPEs
PFAS Production Polymer Not applicable
Nonpolymers Emulsion polymerization processing aids for fluoropolymers (such as PTFE, FEP, PFA, PVDF), (co)monomer of side-chain fluorinated polymers; (co)monomer of fluoropolymers and to make fluoroelastomers; may use salts of long-chain PFCAs (such as PFOA and PFNA), salts of short-chain PFCAs (such as PFHxA), or PFECAs
Photolithography & Semiconductor Polymer Equipment raw materials (such as PFA) for molded wafer baskets to handle corrosive liquids and gases, use as fluids in mechanical vacuum pumps
Nonpolymers Photolithography (such as using PFOS) in manufacture of semiconductor chips
Textiles (Upholstery, Carpets), Leather, and Apparel Polymer Fluoropolymers (such as PTFE) are used in the construction of outdoor gear, clothing, and housewares; side-chain fluorinated polymers (such as PASF- or fluorotelomer-based (meth)acrylate polymers and -polyurethanes) may be used in oil- and water-repellent and stain release finishing and treatment coatings
Nonpolymers PFOA-based chromium treatment for paper and leather. Nonpolymer coatings used to treat textiles to provide oil- and water- repellent and stain release finishes

Information presented in this table captures potential instances of use but is not intended to indicate universal use. In addition, the table is not exhaustive of PFAS use in various industries.

Updated June 2022.

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